How police officers went from being at-will employees to having meaningful job protections. • Civil service systems, police discipline boards, and arbitration of discipline.
The 12 requirements for just cause for discipline, including progressive discipline, consideration of mitigating circumstances, the implications of training, and proportionality of punishment.
The requirements for a thorough investigation and timely processing of complaints, and where and how more unusual disciplinary penalties such as demotion and transfer can be used.
The increase in challenges to the binding nature of arbitration decisions.
